Passage: Within the field of organizational behavior, 'Expectancy Theory' posits that employees are motivated to exert effort only when they believe that such effort will lead to successful performance (expectancy), that successful performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and that the rewards offered are personally valuable (valence). For management, the implication is clear: motivation is a multiplicative function. If any one of these three perceptions is near zero, the employee's motivation to perform will be negligible, regardless of the strength of the other two factors. Consider a scenario where a firm introduces a performance bonus but fails to provide the necessary training for employees to master the new workflow. Even if the employees highly value the bonus (high valence) and believe the company will pay it (high instrumentality), their motivation will remain low because they do not believe their efforts can actually result in the required performance level (low expectancy). Conversely, if an employee is capable and trusts the system but finds the reward, such as a public commendation instead of a salary increase, unappealing, the lack of valence will similarly stifle productivity.