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Consider the following argument from an author regarding medical ethics: 'Because the placebo effect relies on the patient's belief in the efficacy of a treatment, any attempt by a physician to inform a patient that they are receiving a placebo necessarily destroys the therapeutic value of the intervention. Therefore, physicians must be permitted to deceive patients in the interest of achieving the best health outcomes.'

Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author's argument?

  1. Many patients report that they value physician honesty more than the specific clinical outcome of their treatment.
  2. Studies show that 'open-label' placebos can still produce therapeutic benefits even when patients know they are placebos.
  3. Some medical conditions are biologically resistant to any form of placebo intervention, regardless of patient belief or expectation.
  4. The placebo effect is generally observed to be considerably stronger for invasive procedures than for simple oral pills or tablets.

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